Teaching strategies refer to methods used to help students learn the desired course contents and be able to develop achievable goals in the future. They identify the different available learning methods to enable them to develop the right strategy to deal with the target group identified.
After determining learning objectives, the next step is the selection of teaching strategies or methods in relation to the desired objectives. Teaching Strategies or methods come in many forms: lecture, class discussion, small group discussion, and videotapes are among just a few types of teaching methods.

Learning strategies refer to students’ self generated thoughts, feelings and actions which are systematically oriented toward attainment of their goals. Iimplementation of appropriate learning strategies is related to student’s self-regulation behavior which in turn should be encouraged by pedagogical designs. Different students learn better in different ways; there are visual learners, tactile learners, and auditory learners. Also, different subjects and topics are often more understandable when taught in different ways.

Strategies

Some prominent strategies are outlined below.

Active Learning
Meyers and Jones (1993) define active learning as learning environments that allow students to talk and listen, read, write, and reflect as they approach course content through problem-solving exercises, informal small groups, simulations, case studies, role playing, and other activities — all of which require students to apply what they are learning. Many studies show that learning is enhanced when students become actively involved in the learning process. Instructional strategies that engage students in the learning process stimulate critical thinking and a greater awareness of other perspectives. Although there are times when lecturing is the most appropriate method for disseminating information, current thinking in college teaching and learning suggests that the use of a variety of instructional strategies can positively enhance student learning. Obviously, teaching strategies should be carefully matched to the teaching objectives of a particular lesson.
Assessing or grading students’ contributions in active learning environments is somewhat problematic. It is extremely important that the course syllabus explicitly outlines the evaluation criteria for each assignment whether individual or group. Students need and want to know what is expected of them.

Blended learning
Blended learning is a mix of delivery methods that have been selected and fashioned to accommodate the various learning needs of a diverse audience in a variety of subjects. This method can include any combination of any of the above delivery methods (McSporran, King 2002).
Thus, Blended Learning is the use of two or more distinct methods of media. This may include combinations such as (Rossett, 2002):

• blending classroom instruction with on-line instruction
• blending on-line instruction with access to a coach or faculty member
• blending simulations with structured courses
• blending on-the-job training with brown bag informal sessions
• blending managerial coaching with e-learning activities

Why blended learning ? Learning requires some sort of experience to take place. And the experience may be quite different for each learner in that we have to consider differences in (Banathy, 1968):

• interest spans
• needs
• aptitudes
• achievements
• variations of time needed to master a specific learning task
• abilities to deal with abstractness or concreteness
• degree to which a learner needs to be guided
• abilities to deal with complexities
• abilities to manipulate objects (such as equipment or machines)
• the degree to which imaginations can be involved
• degrees to motivate creativity
• problem solving differences

Banathy further writes (p61) that a systems approach is multi-directional, in that it not only allows feedback, but it also has feed-ahead or feed-forward strategies for selecting learning experiences.

Cooperative Learning
Cooperative Learning is a systematic pedagogical strategy that encourages small groups of students to work together for the achievement of a common goal. The term ‘Collaborative Learning’ is often used as a synonym for cooperative learning when, in fact, it is a separate strategy that encompasses a broader range of group interactions such as developing learning communities, stimulating student/faculty discussions, and encouraging electronic exchanges (Bruffee, 1993). Both approaches stress the importance of faculty and student involvement in the learning process.
When integrating cooperative or collaborative learning strategies into a course, careful planning and preparation are essential. Understanding how to form groups, ensure positive interdependence, maintain individual accountability, resolve group conflict, develop appropriate assignments and grading criteria, and manage active learning environments are critical to the achievement of a successful cooperative learning experience.

Integrating Technology
Today, educators realize that computer literacy is an important part of a student’s education. Integrating technology into a course curriculum when appropriate, is proving to be valuable for enhancing and extending the learning experience for faculty and students. Many faculty have found electronic mail to be a useful way to promote student/student or faculty/student communication between class meetings. Currently, our students come to us with varying degrees of computer literacy. Faculty who use technology regularly often find it necessary to provide some basic skill level instruction during the first week of class.

Distance Learning
Distance learning is not a new concept. We have all experienced learning outside of a structured classroom setting through television, correspondence courses, etc. Distance learning or distance education as a teaching pedagogy, however, is an important topic of discussion on college campuses today. Distance learning is defined as ‘any form of teaching and learning in which the teacher and learner are not in the same place at the same time’ (Gilbert, 1995).
Obviously, information technology has broadened our concept of the learning environment. It has made it possible for learning experiences to be extended beyond the confines of the traditional classroom. Distance learning technologies take many forms such as computer simulations, interactive collaboration/discussion, and the creation of virtual learning environments connecting regions or nations. Components of distance learning such as email, list serves, and interactive software have also been useful additions to the educational setting.

SYSTEMS APPROACH

System approach is a systematic attempt to coordinate all aspects of a problem towards specific objectives. Webster’s dictionary defines a system as “a regularly interacting or independent group of items forming a unified whole.” The characteristics of a system of may be explained with the help of an example – various parts of the digestive system may be called as components of digestive system. Every component of the digestive system contributes to as supports in functioning of the digestive system as a whole.
he System Approach focuses first upon the learner and then course content, learning experiences and effective media and instructional strategies. Such a system incorporates within itself the capability of providing continuous self-correction and improvement. It is concerned with all elements of instruction including media, including hardware and software. Its purpose is to ensure that the components of the organic whole will be available with the proper characteristics at the proper time to contribute to the total system fulfilling the objectives.
In the systems approach to instruction, the teacher has to plan completely the utilization of selected resource material and the classroom activities. The teacher should have a good overall view of the subject, know his/her limitations, know all about his/her pupils and the individual differences in their learning capacities and plan accordingly. The system approach involves continuous evaluation of learning outcomes and utilization of knowledge gained by analysis of results of evaluation to suitably modify the plan of approach to achieve the stated objectives.
Major steps in the systems approach in education are:

1. Formulating of specific instructional objectives to be achieved and defining instructional goals
2. Deciding appropriate media to achieve these goals
3. Defining learner characteristics and requirements
4. Selecting appropriate methods suitable for effective learning to take place 5. Selecting appropriate learning experiences from available alternatives
5. Selecting appropriate materials and tools required
6. Assigning appropriate personal roles for teachers, students and supporting staff
7. Implementing the programme
8. Evaluating the outcome in terms of original objectives measured in student performance
9. Revising to improve efficiency of the system to improve students’ learning.

Advantages

1. Systems approach helps to identify the suitability of the resource material to achieve the specific goal.
2. Technological advance could be used to provide integration of machines, media and people for attaining the defined goal.
3. It helps to assess the resource needs, their sources and facilities in relation to quantities, time and other factors.
4. It permits an orderly introduction of components demonstrated to be required for systems success in terms of student learning.
5. It avoids rigidity in plan of action as continuous evaluation affords desired beneficial changes to be made.

Limitations

1. Resistance to change. Old ways are difficult to erase. There is always resistance to any new method or approach.
2. Involves hard work. Systems approach requires hard and continuous work on the part of school personnel. Some are not prepared for the extra load.
3. Lack of understanding. Teachers and administrators are still not familiar with systems approach. Though it has been successfully implemented industry, it has still to make headway in education.

Teaching strategy (input method) vs learning domain (behavioral output)

The out put of in terms of learning domain due to inputs of a teaching strategy is presented below.

Teaching strategy	Learning domain
	Cognitive Domain (Bloom, 1956)	Affective Domain (Krathwohl, Bloom, & Masia, 1973)	Psychomotor Domain (Simpson, 1972)
Lecture, reading, audio/visual, demonstration, or guided observations, question and answer period	1. Knowledge	1. Receiving phenomena	1. Perception 2. Set
Discussions, multimedia CBT, Socratic didactic method, reflection. Activities such as surveys, role playing, case studies, fishbowls, etc.	2. Comprehension 3. Application	2. Responding to phenomena	3. Guided response 4. Mechanism
On-the-Job-Training (OJT), practice by doing (some direction or coaching is required), simulated job settings (to include CBT simulations)	4. Analysis	3. Valuing	5. Complex response
Use in real situations. Also may be trained by using several high level activities coupled with OJT.	5. Synthesis	4. Organize values into priorities	6. Adaptation
Normally developed on own (informal learning) through self-study or learning through mistakes, but mentoring and coaching can speed the process.	6. Evaluation	5. Internalizing values	7. Origination

For adult learning , the most effective strategies is that permits interaction , discussion , exchange of viewpoints and participation

Lecture
Lectures are probably most useful for giving a general introduction . It is Most Effective Common method in teaching lower cognitive levels of knowledge and comprehension. The lecture itself does not teach the students to analyze; it merely illustrates the process.

Advantages	Disadvantages
1. The lecture can be used in any size class .	1. The lecture is a teacher-centered, which does not allow for differences in student learning styles or rates.
2. A well-presented lecture can be motivating to the students and inspire them to pursue a topic on their own.	2. Minimal student participation
3. The instructor has total control over what occurs in class	3. Learning from lectures depends on the students' abilities to take notes.

Discussion
It is techniques used for pulling knowledge and ideas. It can be applied as a small groups or larger group discussion composed of 5 to 7 individuals assigned to discuss a certain topic within certain time limit.

Advantages	Disadvantages
1.The students are actively involved in processing information and ideas	1. Discussion can be very time consuming and unfocused unless the instructor makes an effort to direct the flow.
2. Students can share their experiences and participate in making decisions.	2. An instructor often has difficulty in getting the students involved.
3. It provides means of communication and feedback between the lecturer and the learner.	3. Class size must be restricted.

Case study
In this method a situation drawn from real life is followed step-by-step to illustrate a general principle or problem solving strategy. The students themselves are expected to study the case materials. Class time is spent analyzing case materials through a series of instructor questions. At the end of the case, the instructor or a student summarizes.

Advantages	Disadvantages
1. The students' level of involvement is great they are actively applying their learning.	1. Case preparation is time consuming for the instructor , and students.
2. Case study provides for a high level of cognitive learning	2. Students need a base of information about the process or problem area to get the most out of case studies
3. Because the cases are drawn from real situations, they tend to be more interesting and often easier to follow.	3. Even though students are actively involved in the class, the instructor can still maintain a high degree of control over class flow through the questions asked.

Demonstration / performance
The purpose of this method is teaching by exhibition and explanation. It is a valuable method for teaching new procedures, techniques and using of new equipment . The instructor generally begins with a description of what is to be shown along with a list of main points on which the students should focus their attention, this is followed by the demonstration , then The students are given an opportunity to perform the procedure just demonstrated while the instructor observes, offers suggestions and feedback.
Demonstrations are most useful to :
• Highlight a principle for clarification or
• Make it memorable or
• As a preliminary to student practice in a skill area.

Cognitive Level
• The demonstration is aimed at application of a general principle to a specific instance.
• A demonstration/performance method is designed to teach a skill, such as a psychomotor skill or a procedure.

Advantages	Disadvantages
1.Active student participation is a key to skill learning, and demonstration maximizes the efficiency of that participation	1. The procedure does not work well in large groups (Demonstrations can be videotaped and shown on monitors located around a large lecture hall.)
2. Student interest is usually very high both because they are actively involved and because they are dealing with something which they can experience firsthand.	2. Setting up demonstrations is very time consuming.
3. The demonstration is often the only way of conveying the complex operations required in some skilled tasks.	3. Demonstrations don't always go as planned .

Role playing
Acting out real-life situations in through simulation of real life character and situation, scenario are develop for each character it used to illustrates a point or to provide individual with insight in to another viewpoint.

Advantages	Disadvantages
1. Develops skills.	1. Some participants are resistant.
2. Opportunity to practice what is learned.	2. Time-consuming and strongly depend¬ent on student's imagination. .
3. Participants gain insight into own behavior	3. Requires considerable planning

Pairs or small group work
In these situations students work in pairs or small groups on problems of application and analysis. The instructor prepares a description of the task beforehand and in class divides the large group into smaller work groups of 2 to 7 students. These students work together to complete the task as assigned. The instructor then reconvenes the large group and has the groups compare their solutions.

Advantages	Disadvantages
1. By working together, students learn from one another and become less dependent on the instructor.	1. Group work is time consuming and difficult to evaluate.
2. By working together, students learn from one another and become less dependent on the instructor.	2. The physical setting of most classrooms works against group work.
3. Peer group pressure helps motivate students to prepare for class	3. The instructor must be willing to give up control of the class, must be prepared to cope with the unexpected event.
4. Group solutions are often far superior to individual solutions	4. Some groups need more supervision than others.
5. The instructor can spend more time with those students or groups who need attention	5. Group activities need to be planned and explained carefully.

Assignment sheet
Provide student with essential materials of a selected topics that can studied individually as a home work.

Advantages	Disadvantages
1. Enables students to work at his own peace	1. Necessitates special educational competence
2. Facilitates decision-making	2. No group dynamic.
3. Allow teacher to save time that can then be spent on more complex activities	3. Not helpful for all types of students

Flipped class room
The flipped classroom approach has been used for years in some disciplines, notably within the humanities. Barbara Walvoord and Virginia Johnson Anderson promoted the use of this approach in their book Effective Grading (1998). They propose a model in which students gain first-exposure learning prior to class and focus on the processing part of learning (synthesizing, analyzing, problem-solving, etc.) in class.

Inverted Classroom
Maureen Lage, Glenn Platt, and Michael Treglia described a similar approach as the inverted classroom, and reported its application in an introductory economics course in 2000. Lage, Platt, and Treglia initiated their experiment in response to the observation that the traditional lecture format is incompatible with some learning styles. To make their course more compatible with their students’ varied learning styles, they designed an inverted classroom in which they provided students with a variety of tools to gain first exposure to material outside of class: textbook readings, lecture videos, Powerpoint presentations with voice-over, and printable Powerpoint slides.
To help ensure student preparation for class, students were expected to complete worksheets that were periodically but randomly collected and graded. Class time was then spent on activities that encouraged students to process and apply economics principles, ranging from mini-lectures in response to student questions to economic experiments to small group discussions of application problems. Both student and instructor response to the approach was positive, with instructors noting that students appeared more motivated than when the course was taught in a traditional format.

Peer Instruction
Eric Mazur and Catherine Crouch describe a modified form of the flipped classroom that they term peer instruction (2001). Like the approaches described by Walvoord and Anderson and Lage, Platt, and Treglia, the peer instruction (PI) model requires that students gain first exposure prior to class, and uses assignments (in this case, quizzes) to help ensure that students come to class prepared. Class time is structured around alternating mini-lectures and conceptual questions. Importantly, the conceptual questions are not posed informally and answered by student volunteers as in traditional lectures; instead, all students must answer the conceptual question, often via “clickers”, or handheld personal response systems, that allow students to answer anonymously and that allow the instructor to see (and display) the class data immediately. If a large fraction of the class (usually between 30 and 65%) answers incorrectly, then students reconsider the question in small groups while instructors circulate to promote productive discussions. After discussion, students answer the conceptual question again. The instructor provides feedback, explaining the correct answer and following up with related questions if appropriate. The cycle is then repeated with another topic, with each cycle typically taking 13-15 minutes.
Mazur and colleagues have published results suggesting that the PI method results in significant learning gains when compared to traditional instruction (2001). In 1998, Richard Hake gathered data on 2084 students in 14 introductory physics courses taught by traditional methods (defined by the instructor as relying primarily on passive student lectures and algorithmic problem exams), allowing him to define an average gain for students in such courses using pre/post-test data. Hake then compared these results to those seen with interactive engagement methods, defined as “heads-on (always) and hands-on (usually) activities which yield immediate feedback through discussion with peers and/or instructors” (Hake p. 65) for 4458 students in 48 courses. He found that students taught with interactive engagement methods exhibited learning gains almost two standard deviations higher than those observed in the traditional courses (0.48 +/- 0.14 vs. 0.23 +/- 0.04). Assessment of classes taught by the PI method provides evidence of even greater learning gains, with students in PI courses exhibiting learning gains ranging from 0.49 to 0.74 over eight years of assessment at Harvard University (Crouch and Mazur, 2001). Interestingly, two introductory physics classes taught by traditional methods during the assessment period at Harvard show much lower learning gains (0.25 in a calculus-based course in 1990 and 0.40 in an algebra-based course in 1999).
Carl Wieman and colleagues have also published evidence that flipping the classroom can produce significant learning gains (Deslauriers et al., 2011). Wieman and colleagues compared two sections of a large-enrollment physics class. The classes were both taught via interactive lecture methods for the majority of the semester and showed no significant differences prior to the experiment. During the twelfth week of the semester, one section was “flipped,” with first exposure to new material occurring prior to class via reading assignments and quizzes, and class time devoted to small group discussion of clicker questions and questions that required written responses. Although class discussion was supported by targeted instructor feedback, no formal lecture was included in the experimental group. The control section was encouraged to read the same assignments prior to class and answered most of the same clicker questions for summative assessment but were not intentionally engaged in active learning exercises during class. During the experiment, student engagement increased in the experimental section (from 45 +/- 5% to 85 +/- 5% as assessed by four trained observers) but did not change in the control section. At the end of the experimental week, students completed a multiple choice test, resulting in an average score of 41 +/- 1% in the control classroom and 74 +/- 1% in the “flipped” classroom, with an effect size of 2.5 standard deviations. Although the authors did not address retention of the gains over time, this dramatic increase in student learning supports the use of the flipped classroom model.

Advantages

Students learn more deeply.
As a result of students taking responsibility, interacting meaningfully and often with their instructor and peers, and getting and giving frequent feedback, they acquire a deeper understanding of the content and how to use it.

Students are more active participants in learning.
The student role shifts from passive recipient to active constructor of knowledge, giving them opportunities to practice using the intellectual tools of the discipline.

Interaction increases and students learn from one another.
Students work together applying course concepts with guidance from the instructor. This increased interaction helps to create a learning community that encourages them to build knowledge together inside and outside the classroom.

Instructors and students get more feedback.
With more opportunities for students to apply their knowledge and therefore demonstrate their ability to use it, gaps in their understanding become visible to both themselves and the instructor.

References

https://facultyinnovate.utexas.edu/teaching/strategies/flipping
Cynthia J. Brame, CFT Assistant Director Flipping the Classroom https://cft.vanderbilt.edu/guides-sub-pages/flipping -the-classroom

Assignments

1. Collect data with regard to teaching and learning strategies for
a. UG and PG teaching
b. Theory and practical courses
2. Prepare brief note on flipped class room with empirical evidences, circulate among teachers and students and seek their opinions about the method.