Programmed instruction is a carefully specified, systematically planned, empirically established, skillfully arranged and effectively controlled self-instructional technique for providing individualized instruction or learning experiences to the learner.

Definitions and meaning of programmed instruction

James E. Espich and Bill willam defined programmed instruction is a planned sequence of experiences, leading to proficiency in terms of stimulus response relationship.
Susan marke (1969) defined it is a method of designing a reproducible sequence of instructional events to produce a measurable and consistent effect on the behaviors of each and every acceptable student.
Kempfer , defined as a device which presents an exercise or a problem to a student, inducing him to respond, and revealing to him whether or not his response his correct.
Edger Dale defined Programmed learning is a systematic, step by step, self-instructional programmed aimed to ensure the learning of stated behavior.

Programmed learning as a ‘technical revolution’ in education

Programmed learning emerged In the beginning of the 20th century from the efforts of American psychologist E.L. Thorndike was the first psychologist whose findings bear direct relevance to programming . programmed learning is related with the ‘Law of Effect’
Sidney L. Pressey his developed by a machines which could teach as well as test. The machines present a series of questions to a student and inform him immediately whether his response is right or wrong.

Teaching instruction and programmed instruction
Acc to edger Dale ‘Teaching’ is a broad, vague, ill-defined term and Instruction is a purposeful, orderly, controlled sequencing of experience to reach a specified goal. programmed instruction is a sub-head under instruction and represents a more rigorous attempt to develop a mastery, over specified goals to secure ‘insured’ learning.

Salient characteristics of programmed learning

• This makes the terminal behavior desired to be built up through the program me measurable and observable.
• The subject matter of the program me is presented by breaking into small steps in a logical sequence.
• it is a process of constructing sequences of instructional material.
• Assumption about the learner are clearly started and put in definite terms in a programmed learning type of situation.
• Programmed learner emphasizes the interaction between the learner and program.
• The learner is made to respond actively by asking to fill in the blank, cont the no. of coins in a row etc…
• It considers the initial behavior of the learner.
• In a programmed learning situation, the learner progresses at his own pace.
• This test provides for immediate feed-back information.
• Its takes care of the fact.
• It enhances the capacity of the learner to discriminate
• It provides for constant evaluation through the record the record of learner’s response.
• This is based strictly on the behaviouristic principles of psychology.

Programmed instruction

• It is an individualized technique of instruction.
• It is based on the teaching principles that have been known for years.
• It presents the instructional matter step by step in logical order.
• The size of the unit of  information presented to the pupil is a small bit of information.
• Immediate feedback is given to the learner.
• Objectives are defined very clearly in operational terms.
• The programmers prepares his program me with care and precision.
• Program me is prepared in such a way that the student automatically participates actively by making  responses continually.
• A programme is developed empirically through a series of tryouts and refind gradually. Effective sequences of frames are retained and ineffective. Ounces’ discarded.

Traditional method

• it is a group technique.
• It becomes difficult to apply  teaching principles in crowded classrooms.
• It presents the instructional matter hole
• The  unit is a lengthy one. There no provision for response from the students in the form of answer to questions.
• The learner does not get immediate feedback.
• Objectives are well-defined and are usually vague.
• Little preparation is made.
• The student usually remains a passive listener and the teacher himself does the summarizing and reviewing.
• It is usually found to be very difficult to modify traditional instruction on the basis of student reaction.

Fundamental principles of Principles of programmed learning

Principle of small steps: it is shown by experiments that even the dullest students can learn as effectively as the brightest because the listed matter is presented to them in suitable small steps. When we divide the task to be learnt into very small steps, and ask the students to learn only one step at a time, then probably all the students will be able to learn one small step at a time and sequentially learn all the steps. It is a difficult task to climb a mountain but once steps are built even a child can climb the mountain very easily. This is known as the ‘principle of small steps’.

Principle of activity responding: the second psychological principle is that the students learn better and faster when they are actively participating in the teaching-learning process. In our class room teaching the teacher do ask a few questions and the students respond. but it is not possible for the teachers to ask all the students to respond. At each small step. A teaching machine text or a programmed text contains a large number of questions one question at each small step and the students respond actively. The principle of active responding is used for the programmers’. The teaching machines and programmer have proved to be superior because they provide opportunity to every learner to respond at every small step.

Principle of reinforcement: every response even approximately correct must be reinforced immediately. Delayed reinforcement fails to work. This is possible only when a teacher has to teach only one student at a time. The most ideal situation is when the teacher can cater the needs of his student individually. But in classroom teaching this is hardly possible. No teacher however, efficient and sincere he may be, can reinforce each correct response of each of his students as soon as it is made in a classroom situation where he has to teach about 40/50 students. The teaching machine and programmes do the job more efficiently.

Principle of self-pacing: the programmed instruction is based on the basic assumption that learning take place effectively if the learner is allowed to learn at his own pace. Therefore, a good programme of the material always takes care of the principle of self-pacing. A learner moves from one frame to another according to his own speed of learning.

Principle of student-evaluation or student testing continuous evaluation of the student and the learning process leads to better teachining-lerning . in the programmed instruction, the learner has to leave the record of his reposes because he is re quire to write a response because he is require to write a response for each frame on response sheet. This detailed record helps in revising the program me.

Rules for the art of programming
Klaus has summed up 12 rules of the art of programming and building instructional frames:

• Active responding. A learner learns from making a response and not from hearing or seeing it.
• Proper cueing. The provision of proper cueing is the main difference between a test question and auto-instructional frame.
• Appropriate context. This is the kind of stimuli that will be capable of evoking the desired response at some time in future.
• Small steps. It is very desirable that there should be as many small steps as possible.
• Frequent repetition. Cues associated should changed and frequent repetition provided in frames.
• Knowledge of subject matter and technical accuracy. a  sound knowledge of these is very necessary for preparing a suitable and effective program me.
• Lecturing to be avoided. The learner should be helped to learn and this is possible in case we provide facts to the learner.
• Evoking a relative response. Right kind of illustration should be used for evoking a response.
• Providing cues in adequate number. Excess of cues will prevent the learner from making his own generalizations and discovering principles.
• Not assuming too much knowledge. The programmer should not assume too much knowledge on the part of the learner.
• Presenting of facts in frames. Only one fact should be presented one frame.

Types of programming

• Linear or extrinsic programming
• Branching or extrinsic programming
• Mathetics programming.
• Rules system of programming.
• Computer assisted programming.
• Learner controlled instruction.

Linear programming
Acc to skinners (1954) , a carefully constructed programmed consisting of small steps leading logically through the subject matter from topic to topic, provided each step is reinforced by some kind of favorable experience or reward.

Branching or intrinsic programming
Acc to Norman A. Crowder, branching or intrinsic programme is one which adopts to the needs of the learners without the medium of any extrinsic device such as a computer. It is not controlled extrinsically by the programmer.

Mathetics
Acc to Thomas B. Gilbert (1962) ‘mathetics is a systematic application of reinforcement theory to the analysis and construct of complex behavior repertories usually known as subject-matter mastery, knowledge and skills. Mathetics, if applied diligently, produces materials that exceed the efficiently of lessons produced by any known method.

PROGRAMMING MODELS COMPARED

ITEM/CONCEPT	BRANCHING	LINEAR	MATHETICS
1. PROPOPNENT	NORMAN A. CROWDER1954	B.F. SKINNER1954	THOMAS B. GILBERT1962
2. Learning theory	Configuration theories of learning	Operant conditioning	Connectionist theory
3. application	Remedial to the difficulties of the learner	Modification of behavior	Mastery of the subject matter
4. Stage utility	Very effective at higher class	Very effective at the secondary stage	Usual for higher classes
5. reinforcement	Ultimate correctness of response	Correctness of responce	Task completion
6. Unit of presentation	The frame	The frame	The operant
7. Size of the step	larger	small	As big as possible
8. Number of steps	small	larger	As few as possible
9.responce	Multiple-choice	constructed	Written by performing task on stimulator
10. Rate of error	Varies acc to programme usually 20%	5%	Some deliberate errors written into the sharpen discrimination
11. Subject matter suitability	Where broader concept large pieces of information can be given	Subject which can divided into small pieces	Suited to kinesthetic or discrimination skills
12. Paper programme	Scrambled text	Linear book	Programmed instructional package
13. Machine design	Film programme	Simple linear	stimulation devices
14. Paper cost	Relatively expensive	Lower cost	High cost
15. Machine cost	More than linear	cheap	Varies acc to the type of stimulator

Assignment:

1. Plan a lesson with programmed instructions method.
2. Refer research articles focusing on the comparison of three typesof programmed instruction and prepare a write up.